One catalyst to rule them all: a journey from bulk to atom-level control

Introduction
Catalysis is nowadays a milestone for a variety of industrial chemical processes that would be impossible to sustain by traditional chemical means. Indeed, catalysis has the role of enabling reactions that would otherwise be too slow, inefficient, or unselective.

The term ‘catalysis’ was coined in 1835 by Jöns Jakob Berzelius, who described substances that facilitate chemical reactions without being consumed during the reaction itself. The history of catalysis continued with a Nobel Prize awarded to Wilhelm Ostwald in 1909 for his contribution in establishing the thermodynamic and kinetic underpinnings of catalytic processes. Another catalysis-centred Nobel Prize was awarded in 1912 to Paul Sabatier for his studies on catalytic hydrogenation. The 20th century was the century in which industrial catalysis began to flourish, with landmark applications such as the Haber-Bosch process for ammonia synthesis and catalytic cracking in petroleum refining. In the second half of the century, organometallic chemistry rose to prominence alongside the development of homogeneous transition metal catalytic systems—fields recognized with Nobel Prizes awarded to Ziegler and Natta in 1963, and to Wilkinson and Fischer in 1973.The science of catalysis did not rest with the rise of the 21st century; indeed, it continues to have a huge impact on the world, which is reflected by the acknowledgement of numerous Nobel Prizes to Knowles, Noyori, and Sharpless (2001); Chauvin, Grubbs, and Shrock (2005); Ertl (2007); and Heck, Negishi, and Suzuki (2010) (1, 2). These important honours which represent the extreme interest in catalysis science from the scientific community were followed and supported by an exceptional rise in industrial applications, demonstrated by the vast number of patents filed, and by the estimation that nowadays 90% of industrial chemical processes include one or more catalytic steps (3).

Since the 20th century, catalysis has undergone significant transformations, paralleling advances in coordination chemistry, materials science, and nanotechnology. Each shift, from molecular homogeneous systems to supported metal catalysts and then to isolated atomic species, has addressed specific industrial and environmental challenges. The evolution of catalysis is not merely a technological development, but it reflects a broader shift in how chemists design molecules and processes with precision and sustainability in mind. Understanding this trajectory is essential to appreciate where the field is heading and the opportunities it holds for innovation (1, 2) .